UK Crisis Grows Over Pregabalin Misuse

By Pat Anson, PNN Editor

Nearly 3,400 people in the UK have died from overdoses involving pregabalin in the last five years, according to an investigation by The Sunday Times.

One of them was a young man named Alex Cottam, who spiraled into drug abuse, addiction and a fatal overdose after he started taking pregabalin for anxiety and depression.   

“It’s hard to imagine somebody’s whole life revolved around a pill, but it did,” said Cottam’s mother, Michelle. “It completely changed him, like it was an obsession.”

The Sunday Times’ story about Cottam and other pregabalin users sparked a frenzy in British tabloids about the growing misuse of the drug.

“Our Pregabalin nightmare” was the headline in the Daily Mail, which shared the story of a woman with arthritis who said she “felt like I was losing my mind” after taking the drug for six months. Another woman told the tabloid she began seeing “dead people” within 30 minutes of her first dose.  

In a first-person account published in The Telegraph, Miranda Levy wrote about the severe withdrawal she experienced when she stopped taking pregabalin for depression.

“First came the pins and needles, closely followed by the sweating,” said Levy. “Add to this the progression of unremitting nausea, retching, diarrhea, jitteriness, dizziness so bad you can’t stand up and the feeling you’re about to die.”

Pregabalin – commonly known as the brand name Lyrica -- was never intended to treat anxiety, depression or arthritis. It was originally developed as an anticonvulsant that was first approved by the FDA in 2004 as a treatment for epilepsy. Since then it has been prescribed for dozens of painful conditions such as fibromyalgia and diabetic neuropathy, and is sometimes hailed as a “wonder drug” that is safer than opioids.

Pregabalin has helped some pain patients, but for many it’s also had severe side effects such as fatigue, insomnia and cognitive decline. Margaret Heath started taking pregabalin two years ago for Complex Regional Pain Syndrome (CRPS) and says it ruined her life.

"I've been on every type of morphine you can be put on... this is by far and away the worse drug to be on. It's worse than fentanyl. There is absolutely no comparison with the viciousness of the withdrawal of pregabalin," Heath told LBC News. "There would be days where I would not be able to do anything except lie there... it was debilitating."

Nearly nine million prescriptions for pregabalin were written in the US in 2021, the last year for which data is available. A similar number were written in England and Wales the following year, despite growing concerns in the UK that pregabalin is being misused to boost the euphoric effects of other drugs.

Pregabalin has become so popular with illicit drug users that it frequently appears in overdose toxicology reports. The number of fatal overdoses in the UK involving pregabalin has risen by nearly 11,000% since 2011, followed by a 3,275% increase in gabapentin-related drug deaths.    

UK Drugs With Biggest % Increase in Deaths (2011-2022)

DAILY MAIL GRAPHIC

Pregabalin and gabapentin (Neurontin) belong in a class of nerve medication known as gabapentinoids. Their mechanism of action – how they affect the brain and central nervous system – is still unclear two decades after their medical use was approved.

The UK drug statistics are mirrored in a recent analysis of drug tests in the US, which found gabapentin in over 13% of urine samples that tested positive for fentanyl. That’s about twice the number of drug tests in which prescription opioids were found.

Just because a drug is “involved” in an overdose or appears in a drug test doesn’t necessarily mean that drug caused the overdose or is a red flag for addiction. But experts say its long past time for doctors to be more careful about prescribing pregabalin, and to warn patients about potential side effects and the risk of withdrawal.

“How can there be rising deaths from pregabalin and a huge explosion of prescriptions, with all these troubles, and yet doctors are using this drug to treat anxiety?” asks Dr. Mark Horowitz, a clinical research fellow at the UK’s National Health Service.

“Doctors are selling cars without brakes,” Horowitz told The Sunday Times. “It boggles the mind when a drug is showing all these dangers to then use it on a wider variety of people.”

Did Opioids Take Away Your Pain?

By Richard “Red” Lawhern, PhD

I write to and for pain patients in several medical journals and social media venues.  I’ve been doing this work for over 25 years. A few days ago, on one of those venues, I encountered the question asked in the headline: “Did opioids take away your pain?”

What follows is my answer.  

I come to this question from the perspective of a published healthcare writer and caregiver to a chronic neuropathic face pain patient. I weekly interact with thousands of patients in social media and via email distribution lists. Thus I “see” many types of pain and many lives impacted by pain.

Pain is the symptom that most often brings patients to a doctor's office. About 50 to 100 million U.S. citizens are affected by pain that significantly affects their quality of life and requires medical treatment.  In 2018, nearly one in five U.S. adults received a prescription for opioids. Prescription rates have dropped dramatically since then, potentially leaving millions of patients under-treated.

From deep study, I am convinced that opioid pain relievers are safe and effective for the great majority of people in whom they are medically managed by a trained and licensed clinician (doctor, physician assistant, nurse practitioner, etc.).

A small percentage of pain patients — estimated by some writers at 0.6% and others as high as 3% — are vulnerable to substance abuse and addiction. However, the numbers of medication abusers appear to be relatively constant, and are not affected by increased or decreased prescribing rates. This suggests that genetic factors might be involved in addiction, but medical literature isn’t conclusive on this issue. Other “causes” of addiction clearly contribute, such as social isolation, hopelessness, unemployment, and protracted untreated pain. 

Depression and anxiety almost certainly play significant roles in both addiction and suffering due to chronic pain. I see this demonstrated repeatedly in thousands of person-to-person contacts on social media.  I believe aggressive evaluation and treatment for depression is a necessary element for effective pain treatment.

Opioids are not needed by all pain patients. And some pain patients are either very slow or very fast metabolizers of opioids due to their genetics – causing a wide variation in the minimum effective dose between individuals.  Others may develop tolerance over time, requiring higher doses to obtain the same pain relief.

For patients managed over long periods on high doses, physical dependence (different from addiction), may develop and they may have withdrawal symptoms if they are tapered off treatment too rapidly. I see no consistent evidence for any effect that can be called “opioid induced hyperalgesia,” a theory that opioids can make pain worse.

Opioids create variable side effects — constipation, sleepiness, brain fog, nausea or low sexual libido.  These side effects can be managed in many people. And for patients who don’t find a balance, one opioid can be tapered down while a different opioid is titrated up. 

Unfortunately, many physicians seem to be unaware of the highly individual responses to these medications.  If a patient cannot tolerate one opioid and pain is severe enough to warrant using this class of medications, then other opioids can be tried.

There is no one-size-fits-all effective dose or safe dose in this class of medicines. I have talked with patients who get substantial pain reduction (rarely total pain relief) from minimal daily doses of 20 morphine milligram equivalent (MME). I’ve also talked with patients who benefited from a dose as high as 2,000 MME, while experiencing few side effects.  There is published literature in case reports pertaining to this widespread range of doses.

This background leads to a central observation:  the default procedure in long term treatment of pain is to first try non-opioids (primarily NSAIDS, sometimes anti-seizure meds for neuropathy); then to try relatively weak opioids like tramadol; and finally to try stronger opioids like hydrocodone or fentanyl patches. This procedure has been known for over 30 years as the World Health Organization’s “Pain Ladder.”

For all drug treatments, additional non-drug support therapy is appropriate.  By this, I mean patient and caregiver support groups, counseling, massage, physical therapy, acupuncture, cognitive behavioral therapy or interventional medicine. Given that such measures rarely improve pain more than marginally, they are not “preferable” to opioids. They can augment but not replace analgesic medication. 

For all opioid therapies, I believe the appropriate medical procedure is to taper up gradually from low doses, while observing and managing intended outcomes and unintended side effects, until a dose level is found that helps the patient manage their pain without creating dangerous side effects.  When this approach is used — even in patients who also deal with substance abuse issues — we see long-term improvements in patient quality of life. 

By contrast, it is now widely understood that forced tapering of patients to lower opioid doses or “cold turkey” withdrawal can be a direct cause of medical crises and sometimes patient suicide.  Patient desertion is never ethically or medically justifiable.

Used with appropriate oversight by a licensed physician, opioids are both safe and effective.  Addiction or substance abuse are rare in medically managed patients.  There is also no relationship between rates of prescribing versus hospital admissions or overdose related mortality. The continuing and widely shouted “association” between doctor-prescribed opioids and substance abuse is a false narrative that has enormously damaged patients and clinicians alike.

The original and draft revision of the 2016 CDC opioid guideline is fatally flawed by anti-opioid political agendas and outright fraudulent junk science. In my view, these guidelines must be publicly repudiated and withdrawn without replacement. All state guidelines referenced to the CDC must likewise be revised or withdrawn.

It is time to remove law enforcement from doctors’ offices, and return the practice of pain medicine to those with actual training and hands-on experience working with people in pain. 

Richard “Red” Lawhern, PhD, is a subject matter expert in public policy for regulation of prescription opioids and of clinicians who employ them on behalf of patients. Dr. Lawhern is a regular contributor to Pain News Network.

Few Patients on Long-Term Opioids Engage in Risky Behavior

By Pat Anson, PNN Editor

Only a small percentage of pain patients on long-term opioid therapy ask for higher doses, renew their prescriptions early or divert their medication to another person, according to a new study that challenges many common assumptions about prescription opioids.

For five years, Australian researchers followed over 1,500 patients taking opioid pain medication, with annual interviews asking them about their opioid use and behavior. The study is believed to be the first of its kind to follow patients on opioid therapy for such a long period.   

Most of the patients suffered from chronic back, neck or arthritis pain, and were taking opioids for at least 6 weeks at the start of the study, including about 15% who were taking high doses exceeding 200 MME (morphine milligram equivalent) per day. The CDC opioid guideline recommends that daily doses not exceed 90 MME.  

Researchers found that “problematic opioid use” was infrequent and steadily declined over time, with less than 10% of patients asking for higher doses or for a prescription to be renewed early. Less than 5% of patients tampered with their medications or diverted them to another person.     

“Contrary to the predominant thinking in pain management, the findings of this study suggest considerable fluidity in opioid use over time among many patients with CNCP (chronic non-cancer pain) who use opioids,” wrote lead author Louisa Degenhardt, PhD, Deputy Director of the National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre at University of New South Wales.

By the end of the study, patients were more likely to have stopped taking opioids (20%) than they were to be diagnosed with opioid dependence (8%), suggesting that long-term opioid use does not always lead to dependence or addiction. Even when they were diagnosed as opioid dependent, most patients did not meet the criteria for dependence the following year, suggesting the original diagnosis was faulty.

JAMA Network Open

Researchers noted there was “substantial variation” in how patients answered questions from year to year about their opioid use and behavior. Most who reported risky behavior did so in only one of the annual interviews.  

“This finding challenges a common view that the risk of opioid-related behaviors is static and that risk assessment at the start of opioid treatment can predict which patients will develop opioid use disorder,” researchers concluded in JAMA Network Open. “By contrast, individuals who engage in opioid-related behaviors change over time, which also suggests that opioid behaviors of concern need not persist.”

“This study shows what most clinicians treating CNCP with opioids already know, which is that most individuals do fine with chronic opioid therapy. It is only a few people who develop a problem, and that can’t be easily predicted based on a person's early behaviors associated with opioids prescribed for pain,” said Dr. Lynn Webster, a PNN columnist and past president of the American Academy of Pain Medicine.

“It refutes the argument that patients on chronic opioid therapy inevitably will abuse, become addicted, or never cease using opioids once started.” 

Webster noted that most people in the study were stable and few demonstrated any abuse or harm from opioids, including those on high doses who were less likely to ask for more medication.

“I think the overriding message of this study is that the one-size-fits all approach to using opioids for CNCP is flawed. The idea that everyone should be at a low level doesn't address individual needs,” Webster said.

No Relationship Between Rx Opioids and Injury Deaths

Another new study that challenges conventional thinking about prescription opioids found that high doses are not associated with higher rates of trauma-related death.

Researchers at Case Western Reserve University looked at mortality rates in all 50 states from 2006 to 2017, comparing them to the amount of opioids prescribed during the same period.

The researchers believed they would find a relationship between opioids and higher death rates. Their theory was that people on opioids were more likely to be impaired, which would lead to more car crashes, accidents, drownings, suicides and other types of trauma death.

But in findings reported in the journal Injury, there was no association between the two.

“In every state examined, there was no consistent relationship between the amount of prescription opioids delivered and total injury-related mortality or any subgroups, suggesting that there is not a direct association between prescription opioids and injury-related mortality,” wrote lead author Esther Tseng, MD, a trauma surgeon and professor at CWRU.

It's important to note that Tseng and her colleagues did not look at fatal overdoses caused by prescription opioids. Previous research by the CDC has found that deaths linked to opioid pain medication have been relatively flat for nearly a decade. The vast majority of overdoses involve illicit fentanyl and other street drugs.    

Survey Finds Over Half of MS Patients Abused by Caregivers

By Pat Anson, PNN Editor

People with multiple sclerosis already have enough problems living with a progressive disease and sky-high medical bills. But now there’s word that many of them are being abused by their own caregivers.   

Researchers at the University of California, Riverside surveyed 206 patients with advanced MS and found that over half of them were being abused in some way by an unpaid caregiver who was often a member of their own family. The mistreatment ranged from psychological (44%) and financial abuse (25%) to neglect (16.5%) and physical abuse (11%). Over 8 percent of patients said they were abused sexually.   

"We knew we would find some level of abuse and neglect, but we were surprised by how prevalent it is," said Elizabeth Morrison-Banks, MD, a health sciences clinical professor at the UC Riverside School of Medicine, who led the study. "The findings of this study represent a collective cry for help from so many families affected by multiple sclerosis across the United States."

MS is a chronic and disabling autoimmune disease that attacks the body’s central nervous system, causing pain, numbness, difficulty walking, paralysis, loss of vision and fatigue.

"Some people live with MS for many years but with milder symptoms, and they may remain completely self-sufficient and never require a caregiver,” Morrison-Banks explained. “Others are less fortunate and develop neurological disability that can make them vulnerable to abuse and neglect if they are unable to move around independently, take care of their own finances, or get away from the situation when family conflict escalates. These problems are compounded if the person with MS and family lack financial resources."

A recent study found over 75% of American adults with MS face financial hardship that has forced them to cut spending on food, clothing and housing. Many have gone into debt or filed for bankruptcy, and over a third have delayed or stopped filling prescriptions because they can’t afford them. The average cost of disease-modifying MS drugs is about $76,000 a year.

For MS patients who are struggling financially, hiring a professional caregiver is not an option, so many have to rely on family caregivers.

"Some family caregivers are also working full time, caring for children or other family members, and sometimes dealing with health issues of their own," explained Morrison-Banks. "I want to emphasize that the majority of family caregivers do not mistreat those they care for, even in situations that can be very challenging. Nonetheless, it is important to recognize the risk factors for mistreatment of people with disabilities, and do what we can to identify, mitigate, and prevent abuse and neglect."

Other risk factors for mistreatment include MS patients with higher levels of cognitive impairment, caregivers having a mental health problem, alcohol use by the caregiver or patient, and low levels of social support within the family.

"Being a full-time family caregiver for someone with substantial neurological disability often presents significant challenges," Morrison-Banks said. "Many families take these challenges in stride, but others end up in situations of abuse and/or neglect."

The survey findings have been published in the journal Multiple Sclerosis and Related Disorders. The research paper is believed to be the first to document the nature and extent of caregiver mistreatment of MS patients in the United States.

The survey did not include patients who had paid caregivers or trained clinicians. A study of paid caregivers is an important next step for the research team. The National Multiple Sclerosis Society funded the UC Riverside study.

New Screening Tool Identifies 80% of Patients at High Risk of Rx Opioid Abuse

By Pat Anson, PNN Editor

A new opioid screening tool is being introduced that claims to predict – with 80% accuracy – which patients receiving an opioid prescription are likely to have an overdose or get an opioid abuse diagnosis within the next six months.

Geneia, a healthcare data firm based in Pennsylvania, is integrating the opioid screening tool into its analytics platform, which is used by hospitals, insurers, employers and physician groups providing healthcare to over 7 million patients.

Contrary to popular belief, abuse is relatively rare in patients prescribed opioids, so it’s a bit like finding a needle in a haystack. Less than one percent (0.7%) of patients on opioids suffer an overdose or abuse their medication, according to Geneia.

But the consequences of opioid abuse are so serious medically, legally and financially to both patients and providers that healthcare organizations are eager to identify patients who are most at risk.

"An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure," said Fred Rahmanian, Geneia’s chief analytics and technology officer. "Knowing in advance who is at high-risk for an opioid abuse diagnosis or overdose enables physicians to choose alternative pain management strategies."

For example, a hospital using Geneia’s screening tool might give a surgery patient deemed to be “high-risk” a non-opioid pain reliever like acetaminophen for post-operative pain.

‘It’s All Data Driven’

Opioid screening tools have been used for years to help providers identify high-risk patients. Usually they involve questionnaires in which a patient’s medical history is assessed, along with their personal and family history of alcohol and drug use. The risk assessment might also include genetic testing or asking if a patient suffered sexual abuse as a minor.   

Geneia’s screening tool is different. It only looks at the diagnostic codes used in a patient’s medical and pharmacy claims – known as ICD-10 codes – without getting any direct input from providers about patient history. The company’s algorithms search the diagnostic codes for 22 different variables that may indicate a patient may be prone to opioid abuse.

“It’s all data driven,” says Geneia CEO Heather Lavoie, who downplays the importance of questionnaires about patient history.

“Oftentimes you don’t get accurate information. Even about family history of substance use and abuse,” she told PNN. “People are not good historians. There’s often a lot of misinformation, so you’re not always getting an accurate response to questionnaires. Obviously, sometimes you do, but not universally. And so, the benefit is that we can, with very little information, be highly predictive.”

“Glad to see there are efforts to help identify people at increased risks of abuse.  We need accurate and easy to use predictive criteria for those at increased risk of abuse and overdose,” says PNN columnist Dr. Lynn Webster, a pain management expert who developed the first “opioid risk tool” about 15 years ago.  

“Much of the accuracy of tools depends on definitions.  Unfortunately, there are multiple definitions of abuse, misuse and addiction. This makes it difficult to understand what is actually being assessed and predicted with any tool, including this one.” 

Webster is puzzled why Geneia’s screening tool omits a patient’s personal history and genetic testing, and says it may rely too heavily on diagnostic codes.    

“Unfortunately, few physicians know how to diagnose abuse from misuse and addiction. For example, many providers still believe that if someone experiences withdrawal they are addicted, which is not necessarily true,” said Webster. “The bottom line is that if the tool is based on ICD-10 diagnoses it relies on the clinician’s ability to make accurate diagnoses, most of whom have never been trained to make such diagnoses.  

“I am surprised that genetic evaluation is not considered in their tool since the vulnerability of opioid addiction is mostly genetic. The balance of the vulnerability to addiction comes from environmental factors like social-economic despair and mental health disorders.”  

Another thing that makes Geneia’s screening tool unique is that it can be used with children and adolescents. Opioid risk tools are typically only used for patients 18 years of age or older.

High False Positive Rate

Geneia tested its screening tool against a database of several million insurance claims, and says it accurately identified 80 to 88 percent of patients who are likely to have an opioid abuse diagnosis or an overdose.

But analytics are not foolproof. Geneia’s screening tool has a false positive rate of nine percent – meaning about one in every ten patients will be flagged inappropriately as high-risk.

“The false positive rate, depending on the data-set, is pretty high because it’s a very rare event rate. It’s really hard to pick the needle out of the haystack,” explained Jasmine McCammon, a data scientist who designed Geneia’s screening tool.  

On the flip side of opioid abuse, the screening tool also identifies patients who are at not high risk, giving reassurance to doctors who are uncertain about whether a patient should be given opioids.

Regardless of what the screening tool finds, CEO Lavoie says the company’s analytics should never be used as a diagnostic device.

“Predictive models shouldn’t be used in place of strong medical practice. They really are to help advise and to provide contextual information, so they (doctors) can work with the patient more directly. It’s in no way a surrogate for good care, but it does help provide additional caution,” Lavoie said.

Study Finds Cannabis Does Not Reduce Opioid Abuse

By Pat Anson, PNN Editor

It’s a common belief that cannabis may reduce the use of opioids and may even help solve the opioid crisis. But a new study by researchers at Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health found that people with substance abuse problems are just as likely to use heroin or to misuse prescription opioids on days when they consume cannabis.

The study, published in the journal Addiction, is believed to be one the first to test whether adults with substance abuse problems are substituting opioids with cannabis. Researchers followed 211 adults in the New York City area for 90 days, asking if they had used cannabis, heroin, or misused prescription opioids.

Participants were mostly male, unemployed, unmarried, and had a high prevalence of substance misuse and pain. “Misuse” of prescription opioids was defined as taking more pain medication than prescribed or without a prescription.

On average, participants reported they used cannabis on 15% of days without opioids, opioids were used on 15% of days without cannabis, and both cannabis and opioids were used on 7% of days. On days that participants used cannabis, the odds of using opioids nearly doubled. The findings were consistent whether participants were experiencing pain or not.

"Our results suggest that cannabis seldom serves as a substitute for non-medical opioids among opioid-using adults, even among those who report experiencing moderate or more severe pain," said Deborah Hasin, PhD, professor of epidemiology at Columbia Mailman School. "In other words, our study suggests that cannabis is not an effective way to limit non-medical opioid use."

Cannabis Users Need More Anesthesia

Another recent study found that cannabis may actually raise pain levels for patients recovering from surgery. In an analysis of 118 patients who had surgery for a broken leg at a Colorado hospital, researchers found that cannabis users needed more anesthesia during surgery than non-users. They were also more likely to have post-operative pain and use higher doses of opioid pain medication while hospitalized.

The findings, presented at the annual meeting of the American Society of Anesthesiologists, adds to the growing body of research suggesting that patients who use cannabis have higher anesthesia needs and more surgery-related pain.

"There is some evidence that cannabis may be beneficial for chronic and nerve pain. However, early research suggests that this is not the case for acute pain such as for surgery of a broken leg," said lead author Ian Holmen, MD, an anesthesiology resident at the University of Colorado Hospital in Aurora, where the study was conducted.

"We now understand patients who chronically use opioids prior to surgery often have exaggerated pain responses and need increased pain medication after surgery because they have an increased tolerance. We speculate that cannabis use may cause a similar effect, but we need more research to determine if this is the case."

Holmen and his colleagues found that cannabis users had higher pain scores while recovering from surgery and received 58% more opioids per day while hospitalized. They also needed about a third more anesthesia. The amount of anesthesia during surgery is typically based on observations of a patient’s involuntary body movements, increased heart rate, high blood pressure or increased rate of breathing, which are signs the patient may be experiencing more pain.

Researchers did not include in the study patients who suffered from chronic pain or those who had previously been prescribed opioids.

"This study shows that it is important for patients to tell their physician anesthesiologist if they have used cannabis products prior to surgery to ensure they receive the best anesthesia and pain control possible, including the use of non-opioid alternatives," said Holmen. "It also confirms that more research is needed to understand how cannabis impacts pain."

A 2019 study of patients who had colonoscopies found that regular marijuana users required three times the amount of a common sedative, propofol, as did nonusers.

Most People Keep Their Leftover Rx Opioids

By Dr. Lynn Webster, PNN Columnist

"Who Is Keeping Their Unused Opioids and Why?"

That’s an important question, especially since we're currently in the midst of a drug crisis. The last thing we want is more prescription drugs being diverted onto the street and circulated for non-medical use. The issue was the subject of a research article published last year in Pain Medicine.

The authors surveyed 235 patients who received hydrocodone prescriptions following emergency room visits between July 2015 and August 2017. All were given information about how to safely dispose of their unused hydrocodone. Researchers contacted the patients a month after they were discharged, asking what they planned on doing with their leftover pills. 

Over half said they had no intention of giving them up. Only 100 of the 235 said they would follow advice and dispose of their unused medication.  

When asked why they were keeping their leftover pills, patients said it was “in case I have pain,” “just in case” and “You never know. If I need it [when I'm traveling out of the country], I can use it.”

A larger national study conducted in 2015 had similar findings. Over 60 percent of patients prescribed opioids said they planned on keeping their leftover pills for future use.

Policy Changes May Be Making the Problem Worse

Over the past several years, partly in an effort to decrease the number of unused opioids, there has been a sweeping change in attitudes and practices of dispensing opioids in emergency rooms. According to the CDC, rates of prescribing opioids in ERs decreased by a third from 2006 to 2017.  

Since patients now receive fewer opioids from the ER than in the past, they are likely to have fewer unused pills. However, paradoxically, that may create more incentive for them to hold onto the unused opioids in case they need them in the future.

It is not just emergency rooms that are providing patients with fewer opioids. Increasingly, patients discharged following surgeries receive less opioid medication or none at all, even though 80 percent of them feel their post-op pain was inadequately treated. 

Under-treated acute pain can cause permanent harm. In a recent issue of Anesthesiology, Editor-in-Chief Evan Kharasch, MD, and several of his colleagues penned an editorial, “Rational Perioperative Opioid Management in the Era of Opioid Crisis.”

They said there was little evidence to support the view that limiting opioids for post-operative pain was reducing abuse. Instead, it was leading to unintended consequences and “opioid phobia.” The authors specifically note that poorly controlled acute pain can lead to chronic pain.

People Worry Whether They Will Get Pain Medication

Many people clearly want to hold onto their unused medications. This is not new. However, the problem may worsen because, more than ever, patients fear that they will not be able to get opioid medication when they need it.

Keeping unused opioids is ill-advised for many reasons, the most important of which is that opioids should never be used except under the direction of a qualified provider. But there's another side to the story. If providers are going to refuse to treat pain, people will want to hold onto the medication they have been prescribed in order to avoid future suffering.

Of course, the intention of limiting the amount of opioids prescribed is to reduce the amount of drugs that could be diverted for non-medical use. But policies and practices designed to limit the amount of unused opioids may actually be dangerously creating a need to preserve, rather than dispose of, unused medication.

To paraphrase Dr. Kharasch, let us avoid making people in pain pay with unnecessary suffering for the opioid overprescribing sins of others.   

Lynn R. Webster, MD, is a vice president of scientific affairs for PRA Health Sciences and consults with the pharmaceutical industry. He is author of the award-winning book, “The Painful Truth,” and co-producer of the documentary, “It Hurts Until You Die.” You can find Lynn on Twitter: @LynnRWebsterMD.

Opinions expressed are those of the author alone and do not reflect the views or policy of PRA Health Sciences.

Domestic Abuse Survivors Have Twice Risk of Fibromyalgia

By Pat Anson, PNN Editor  

Ava Shypula had a difficult childhood growing up in communist Poland. She was physically abused by her father and was left home alone for hours, sometimes days at a time. Ava became chronically ill at a young age. 

“My symptoms began very early, almost as far as I remember. They started with joint pain, chills and constant flu like symptoms, with a sore, inflamed throat,” Ava recalls. 

Even after marrying a doctor and leaving Poland to begin a new life in New York City, Ava’s symptoms persisted. 

“My then-husband ignored my symptoms, focusing on his own career and studying in order to re-certify his medical diploma,” she said. “The fear of failure, pride and ambition to succeed only advanced the illness, which at that time was diagnosed as chronic fatigue syndrome.” 

Only after her marriage ended in a nasty divorce did Ava begin to understand her illness and the role played by stress. She was diagnosed with fibromyalgia – a poorly understood disease characterized by widespread body pain, fatigue, poor sleep, anxiety and depression. 

A neurologist prescribed Lyrica and Ava’s symptoms began improving. 

“For many years women with undiagnosed fibromyalgia had been dismissed as hysterics having emotional issues,” she said. “Together with a fantastic help from my psychiatrist, my symptoms slowly but noticeably diminished, not fully, but they have become more manageable.”

Abuse Causes Physical and Psychological Stress

Ava Shypula’s story is not unique. In fact, it is all too common, according to a large new study that found female survivors of domestic abuse have nearly twice the risk of developing widespread body pain and chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS).

Researchers at the Universities of Birmingham and Warwick in the UK examined the medical records of over 18,500 women who suffered domestic abuse and compared them to 74,000 women who did not. Health data was collected from 1995 to 2017.

The study, published in the Journal of Interpersonal Violence, is one of the first designed to assess the relationship between women who have been abused and the likelihood of them developing long-term illnesses such as fibromyalgia.

"Survivors of domestic abuse can experience immense physiological and psychological stress,” said Professor Julie Taylor of the University of Birmingham's School of Nursing. “The changes that happen in the body as a result of such stress can lead to a multitude of poor health outcomes such as what we see in our study here.

"This is a very complex relationship and it is important to emphasize that not all women who have been abused will develop fibromyalgia or CFS, and that having these conditions does not mean there has been domestic abuse in the past."

Previous research has found that about one in every four women in the UK have experienced some form of domestic abuse, with a large proportion of those cases being violence at the hands of an intimate partner. Globally, about one in three women suffer domestic abuse.

"Considering the prevalence of domestic abuse, and the fact that patients experiencing fibromyalgia and CFS often face delays in diagnosis due to a limited understanding generally of how these conditions are caused, it is important for clinicians to bear in mind that women who have survived abuse are at a greater risk of these conditions,” said Dr. Joht Singh Chandan of the University of Birmingham's Institute of Applied Health Research and Warwick Medical School.

"We hope these first of their kind research findings will change healthcare practice and will be of assistance in the early diagnosis of fibromyalgia and CFS in women who have been abused."

Ava Shypula hopes that sharing her story will help other women understand their illness, get treatment and make lifestyle changes to reduce stress. She’s learned that avoiding cold temperatures, staying warm and getting a good night’s sleep will reduce her symptoms. 

“Encourage them to fight back instead of resigning and living with pity and depression, which I have experienced at different points of my life,” she told PNN. “I have found that emotional support plays a major role to fight with this illness.”

High Number of Youths Using Rx Opioids

By Pat Anson, PNN Editor

A large new analysis of drug use by teenagers and young adults in the U.S. has found a surprisingly high level of prescription opioid use. In a survey of over 56,000 youths, researchers found that 21% of teens and 32% of young adults said they had used opioid medication in the past year.

"The percentages were higher than we expected," said first author Joel Hudgins, MD, of Boston Children's Hospital's Division of Emergency Medicine. "They really highlight how common use of prescription opioids is in this vulnerable population."

The data from the 2015-2016 National Survey on Drug Use and Health doesn’t necessarily reflect the environment that exists today. Opioid prescriptions have fallen by 43% since their peak and last year alone declined by a record 17 percent. Many pain patients — of all ages — now have trouble getting opioids prescribed and filled.

During the study period, nearly 4% of teens and 8% of young adults reported misusing prescription opioids or having an opioid use disorder.

Misuse was defined as using opioids “in any way that a doctor did not direct you to use them,” while a use disorder was classified as recurrent use that causes significant impairment and failure to meet major responsibilities at home, work or school.

Researchers were surprised by some of the findings, which are published in the online journal PLOS One. Among youths who reported misusing prescription opioids, 57% said they obtained them from friends or relatives and only 25% percent came from healthcare providers.

"In previous studies in adults, opioids were more commonly obtained from a physician," Hudgins says. "Our findings show that the focus of prevention and treatment should include close friends and family members of adolescents and young adults, not simply prescribers."

Youths who misused opioids, particularly the young adults, often reported using other substances, including cocaine (36%), hallucinogens (49%), heroin (9%) and inhalants (30%). At least half had used tobacco, alcohol, or cannabis in the past month.

In a previous study, the same researchers found relatively high rates of opioid prescribing to youths visiting emergency rooms and outpatient clinics. About fifteen percent of youths were given opioids during ER visits from 2005 to 2015.

"Given these rates of opioid use and misuse, strong consideration should be given to screening adolescents and young adults for opioid use when they receive care," says Hudgins.

More recent surveys have found a steady decline in the misuse of prescription opioids by young people. The most recent Monitoring the Future Survey found that only 3.4% of high school seniors misused opioid medication in 2018.

Misuse of Vicodin and OxyContin among 12th graders has fallen dramatically over the past 15 years, from 10.5% in 2003 to 1.7% in 2018 for Vicodin, and from 4.5% in 2003 to 2.3% in 2018 for OxyContin.   

Are Most Retired NFL Players Really Addicts?

By Lynn Webster, MD, PNN Columnist

Many of us watched the Super Bowl on Sunday. It was a great defensive game, which means there was a lot of hard-hitting contact. Physical trauma can bring about long-term consequences and that is the subject of a recent New York Times column, "For NFL Retirees, Opioids Bring More Pain" by Ken Belson.

Belson suggests that many retired NFL players become addicted to opioid medication. I don’t know how many former players become addicted, but the summation of players he describes as addicted doesn’t quite add up.

The column cites a recent study published in the Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine that found about 26 percent of retired football players used opioid medication during the past 30 days. Belson suggests that percentage is excessive.

Of course, the players were not addicted just because they used an opioid. Moreover, 26 percent does not seem to be an unreasonable number, given that this is a population with a history of tremendous physical trauma. In fact, it seems like a surprisingly low number given that most former football players experienced enormous physical trauma for years.

Whatever the actual data may be, we can probably attribute the use or misuse of opioids to the fact that these retired players were trying to mitigate severe pain.  

What is Misuse?

The accepted definition of opioid "misuse" is taking an opioid contrary to how it was prescribed, even if it is taken to treat pain. For example, let's say a person is told they can use one hydrocodone three times a day. If that person uses one pill six times a day so they can function (and not to get high), that is considered misusing. However, that is not a sign of addiction. It only reflects the person's desire to escape pain and the therapeutic inadequacy of the prescribed medication. 

Misuse of opioids in the general population is relatively rare, according to a large new study published in the journal Pharmacoepidemiology & Drug Safety. Over 31,000 adults were surveyed about their opioid use, and only 4.4% admitted taking a larger dose or a dose more frequently than prescribed.  

The figure below helps explain the relationships of misuse, abuse and addiction. Some retired football players may misuse their medication, but few will abuse them and even fewer will become addicted. All people with addiction abuse their medication. But people who misuse their medication may not be abusing or addicted to it.  

In his column, Belson cites a 2011 survey by researchers at the Washington University School of Medicine that found over half of former NFL players used opioids during their playing careers and 71 percent misused them.

The same study found that many of these retired players who misused opioids were heavy drinkers. But in his column, Belson reported that "players who abused opioids” were likely to be heavy drinkers.  

Belson uses the words “misuse” and “abuse” interchangeably, as if they have the same meaning. They do not. If Belson means that retired players took opioids in excess of what their doctors prescribed due to uncontrolled pain, that would not be abuse. It would be misuse. If the players were using opioids to get high, that would be abuse. 

Belson mentions one retired player using the same amount of pain medicine as a stage 4 cancer patient and suggests that is an excessive amount. However, the player's need for that amount of opioids should not surprise us. Cancer pain is not more painful than non-cancer pain. People with painful diseases and physical injuries may have pain just as debilitating as a patient dying from cancer.

It is unfortunate, but not shocking, that a retired football player would have as much pain as someone dying of cancer. When someone who does not have cancer uses excessive medication to relieve pain, we are more likely to label that as "abuse." We show more compassion to patients with cancer pain than we do toward anyone else who requires treatment for chronic pain.  

Why We Need Clarity About Our Terms 

Belson writes, "Now, a growing number (of players) are saying the easy access to pills turned them into addicts." That is another statement that gravely concerns me. It is misleading and consistent with the common misunderstanding of what causes addiction or even what addiction is.  

Becoming dependent on opioids, becoming tolerant to opioids, requiring more opioids over time to achieve the same level of pain relief, and experiencing withdrawal if the opioids are suddenly stopped are not necessarily signs of addiction, any more than they would be if the same consequences resulted from taking a blood pressure medication or a sleep aid.  

People frequently write and talk about misuse, abuse and addiction, but many of them don't know what the terms mean.  This has troubling implications for the pain and addiction communities. Mislabeling and misdiagnosing people with addiction leads to harmful policies that adversely affect treatment. It even has legal implications that prevent people in pain or with addiction from accessing appropriate clinical care.  

Severe chronic pain and addiction can devastate lives. But we need to know the differences between misuse of, abuse of, and addiction to medications for the appropriate policies to be implemented. 

Lynn R. Webster, MD, is a vice president of scientific affairs for PRA Health Sciences and consults with the pharmaceutical industry. He is a former president of the American Academy of Pain Medicine and the author of “The Painful Truth: What Chronic Pain Is Really Like and Why It Matters to Each of Us.”

You can find Lynn on Twitter: @LynnRWebsterMD. 

The information in this column should not be considered as professional medical advice, diagnosis or treatment. It is for informational purposes only and represents the author’s opinions alone. It does not inherently express or reflect the views, opinions and/or positions of Pain News Network.

FDA Warns Veterinarians of Pet Owners Abusing Opioids

By Pat Anson, Editor

Doctors and patients aren’t the only ones under scrutiny for prescribing and using opioid pain medication. Pet owners are also coming under suspicion for diverting and abusing opioids intended for their animals.

The Food and Drug Administration today warned veterinarians to be cautious when prescribing opioids and be on the alert for people who may be using their pets to gain access to the drugs.

“We recognize that opioids and other pain medications have a legitimate and important role in treating pain in animals – just as they do for people,” FDA commissioner Scott Gottlieb, MD, said in a statement.

“But just like the opioid medications used in humans, these drugs have potentially serious risks, not just for the animal patients, but also because of their potential to lead to addiction, abuse and overdose in humans who may divert them for their own use.”

Only one opioid is currently approved by the FDA for use in animals, a potent fentanyl medication for post-surgical pain that is sold under the brand name Recuvyra.  

The maker of another fentanyl based product -- carfentanil -- voluntarily surrendered approval for the drug in March because of growing signs it was being diverted. Carfentanil is so potent it was used by veterinarians as an anesthetic on elephants.   

With few options to choose from, some veterinarians are legally prescribing tramadol and others opioids intended for humans to relieve pain in pets. The FDA is recommending veterinarians use alternatives to opioids whenever possible and look for signs of opioid abuse by pet owners and their own employees.

“We’re advising veterinarians to develop a safety plan in the event they encounter a situation involving opioid diversion or clients seeking opioids under the guise of treating their pets; and taking steps to help veterinarians spot the signs of opioid abuse,” Gottlieb said.

Possible warning signs of opioid abuse are suspicious injuries to animals, a pet owner asking for specific medication by name, or asking for refills of lost or stolen medication.

Gottlieb’s statement was released one week after a small study published in the American Journal of Public Health suggested that some pet owners are purposely injuring their animals to gain access to opioids.

"Our results indicate that we should be paying more attention to how opioid abusers are seeking their drugs -- including through veterinary clinics," said Lili Tenney, deputy director of the Center for Health, Work & Environment at the Colorado School of Public Health.

In a survey of 189 Colorado veterinarians, 13 percent reported they had seen a client who they believed had purposefully injured a pet or made them ill. Nearly half the vets said they knew of a pet owner or employee who was abusing opioids; and 12 percent suspected a staff member of diverting opioids or abusing them.

Colorado and Maine require veterinarians to look at a pet owner’s medication history before dispensing opioids or writing a prescription.  Over a dozen states require veterinarians to report when they prescribe opioids to a prescription drug database.

Do 80% of Heroin Users Really Start With a Prescription?

By Roger Chriss, Columnist

U.S. Attorney General Jeff Sessions recently announced a new plan by the DEA to further tighten production quotas for opioid pain medication as a step in the fight against opioid abuse and addiction.

The proposal appears in the Federal Register with the following explanation:

“Users may be initiated into a life of substance abuse and dependency after first obtaining these drugs from their health care providers…. Once ensnared, dependency on potent and dangerous street drugs may ensue. About 80% of heroin users first misused prescription opioids. Thus, it may be inferred that current users of heroin and fentanyl largely entered the gateway as part of the populations who previously misused prescription opioids."

This is not a new claim by the DEA. In its 360 Strategy: Diversion Control, the DEA plainly states, “The connection between prescription opioid abuse and heroin use is clear, with 80% of new heroin abusers starting their opioid addiction by misusing prescription medications.”

Where does the 80% figure come from?

The DEA cites the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) as its source, while NIDA in turn references a 2013 study by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration (SAMHSA).

SAMHSA pooled a decade's worth of data from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health and found that “four out of five recent heroin initiates (79.5 percent) previously used NMPR (nonmedical use of pain relievers)."

But the SAMHSA study did not examine how many of those heroin users had a valid prescription for opioids, so the DEA claim about users "first obtaining these drugs from their health care providers" is untrue. SAMHSA also notes that "the literature on transition from NMPR to heroin use is relatively sparse" and that the "vast majority" of people who abuse opioid medication never actually progress to heroin.

The abuse of opioid medication by heroin users also varies considerably by time, region and demographics -- so must users don't fit neatly into the 80% claim. A review article in The New England Journal of Medicine reports that prior nonmedical use of opioid medication was found in 50% of young adult heroin users in Ohio, in 86% of heroin users in New York and Los Angeles, and in 40%, 39%, and 70% of heroin users in San Diego, Seattle, and New York respectively.

Conversely, studies on the medical use of opioid analgesics show very low rates of opioid addiction. A review in the journal Addiction concluded that “The available evidence suggests that opioid analgesics for chronic pain conditions are not associated with a major risk for developing dependence.”

A 2016 article in The New England Journal of Medicine by Dr. Nora Volkow, Director of NIDA, also explains that “addiction occurs in only a small percentage of persons who are exposed to opioids—even among those with preexisting vulnerabilities.”

‘Opiophobia’ Returns

But despite this well-established information, the 80% statistic is being used to set policy and justify a supply-side approach to the opioid addiction crisis. States are citing the number as they pass new legislation to restrict opioid prescribing, health insurers are using it as they enact new policies to limit medical opioid use, and doctors are telling patients it’s one of the reasons they won’t prescribe opioids.

According to one addiction treatment specialist, the goal of the DEA quota reductions should be to take opioid prescribing back to levels where they stood two decades ago.

“We‘re back down to 2006 levels, but the goal should be to get us back down to 1995 levels. So this means many Americans are still going to be addicted until prescribing becomes more cautious,” Andrew Kolodny, MD, founder of Physicians for Responsible Opioid Prescribing (PROP), told STAT.  

But this assumes that pre-1995 opioid prescribing levels were adequate. According to Jeffrey Singer, MD, a Senior Fellow at the CATO Institute, that would be a mistake.

“It must be remembered that numerous studies throughout the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s documented that patients were being undertreated for pain because of an irrational fear of opioids,” Singer wrote. “Policymakers need to disabuse themselves of the notion that the prescription of opioids to patients by doctors is at the heart of the problem. That notion has made too many patients suffer needlessly as the old ‘opiophobia’ of the 1970s and 1980s has returned.”

Moreover, it assumes that opioids have no clinical benefit. But they are medically very useful, not only in the acute and surgical setting, but also for a variety of chronic pain conditions, such as neuropathy and restless leg syndrome.

The 80% statistic is misleading and encourages faulty assumptions about the overdose crisis and medical care. It is shifting resources away from the public health interventions that would most likely help in the crisis and removes a valid medical treatment for people with a wide range of ailments.

To read and comment on the DEA’s quota proposal, click here. All comments must be received by May 4, 2018.

Roger Chriss lives with Ehlers Danlos syndrome and is a proud member of the Ehlers-Danlos Society. Roger is a technical consultant in Washington state, where he specializes in mathematics and research.

The information in this column should not be considered as professional medical advice, diagnosis or treatment. It is for informational purposes only and represents the author’s opinions alone. It does not inherently express or reflect the views, opinions and/or positions of Pain News Network.

Rescheduling Hydrocodone May Have Increased Abuse

By Pat Anson, Editor

Four years ago that the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration ordered the rescheduling of hydrocodone from a Schedule III controlled substance to the more restrictive category of Schedule II.  The move was intended to reduce the diversion and abuse of hydrocodone, which at one time was the most widely prescribed drug in the United States.

It turns out the rescheduling may have had the unintended effect of increasing the diversion and abuse of opioid medication by elderly Americans.

According to a new study by researchers at the University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB), hydrocodone prescriptions for Medicare beneficiaries declined after the rescheduling, but opioid-related hospitalization of elderly patients increased for those who did not have a prescription for opioids.

"The 2014 federal hydrocodone rescheduling policy was associated with decreased opiate use among the elderly," said lead author Yong-Fang Kuo, PhD, a professor of Preventive Medicine and Community Health at UTMB.

"However, we also observed a 24 percent increase in opioid-related hospitalizations in Medicare patients without documented opioid prescriptions, which may represent an increase in illegal use."

Kuo and her colleagues say Medicare beneficiaries are among the largest consumers of prescription opioids. They speculated that opioid abuse by the elderly may be a coping mechanism to deal with poor health and depression, and that opioid diversion may be a sign of drug dealing.

“An economic purpose may relate to monetary gains from the diversion and sale to others,” Kuo wrote. “It is important for prescribers to understand that their elderly Medicare beneficiaries might be obtaining opioids from sources that are not documented in their medical records. There is a need for additional research on why, where, and how these Medicare enrollees are obtaining opioids.”

The UTMB research team analyzed a large sample of Medicare Part D enrollment and claims data from 2012 through 2015. Their study was published in the Journal of the American Geriatrics Society.

The reclassification of hydrocodone to a Schedule II controlled substance limited patients to an initial 90-day supply and required them to see a doctor for a new prescription each time they need a 30-day refill. Prescriptions for Schedule II drugs also cannot be phoned or faxed in by physicians.

In 2012, over 135 million prescriptions were written in the U.S. for hydrocodone products such as Vicodin, Lortab and Norco.  That fell to 90 million prescriptions by 2016.

Overall Opioid Prescribing Down

Hydrocodone isn't the only opioid medication to see steep declines in prescribing. The volume of opioid prescriptions filled last year dropped by 12 percent, the largest decline in 25 years according to a new report by the IQVIA Institute.  Opioid prescriptions have been falling since 2011, while dispensing of addiction treatment drugs like buprenorphine (Suboxone) and methadone have risen sharply.

“The U.S. opioid epidemic is one of the most challenging public health crises we face as a nation," said Murray Aitken, IQVIA senior vice president and executive director of the IQVIA Institute for Human Data Science.

“Our research and analytics revealed that 2017 saw new therapy starts for prescription opioids in pain management decline nearly 8 percent, with a near doubling of medication-assisted therapies (MATs) for opioid use dependence to 82,000 prescriptions per month. This suggests that healthcare professionals are prescribing opioids less often for pain treatment, but they are actively prescribing MATs to address opioid addiction."

All 50 states and Washington DC had declines in opioid prescribing of 5 percent or more in 2017, with some of the states hardest hit by the opioid crisis -- like West Virginia and Pennsylvania --  showing declines of over 10 percent. Nevertheless, the number of Americans overdosing continues to rise due to increased use of black market drugs like illicit fentanyl, heroin and cocaine, which now account for about two-thirds of all drug deaths.

Heroin Overdoses in ER's Surpass Rx Opioid Overdoses

By Pat Anson, Editor

The number of patients admitted and discharged from U.S. hospitals for abuse of opioid pain medication has declined significantly this decade, while the abuse of heroin and illicit fentanyl has surged, according to a new study that documents the shifting nature of the nation’s overdose crisis.

Researchers at Stanford University analyzed national trends in hospital inpatient and emergency department (ED) discharges for opioid abuse, dependence and poisoning from 1997 to 2014, the last year data was available.

They found that hospital admissions for overdoses from pain medication started falling in 2010, the same year that opioid prescriptions began declining.

At the same time, hospital discharge rates for heroin poisoning increased at an annual rate of over 31 percent. By 2014, heroin overdoses exceeded those from prescription opioids in emergency rooms by almost a 2 to 1 margin.

“After 2008, ED discharge rates for heroin poisoning increased more sharply than the rates for any opioid poisoning -- signaling that the scope of heroin harm is worse than previously suggested -- while discharges for prescription opioid poisoning recently began to decline in both the ED and inpatient settings,” researchers reported in the journal Health Affairs.

“While these changes could be the result of national and local policies aimed at reducing the prescribing of opioids, the expanded availability of heroin and new lethal illicit drugs, such as nonpharmaceutical fentanyl, could mean that they are being used instead of prescription opioids.”

The findings add evidence to recent public health concerns that people misusing or addicted to prescription opioids are switching to heroin and synthetic opioids such as fentanyl because they are cheaper and easier to get.

"This suggests that the expanded availability of lethal illicit drugs are being used to replace prescription opioids in some cases," said Tina Hernandez-Boussard, PhD, associate professor of medicine, of biomedical data sciences and of surgery at Stanford University School of Medicine.

source: health affairs

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has been reluctant to admit that efforts to reduce opioid prescribing could be backfiring, although their own statistics indicate otherwise.  Deaths involving heroin and synthetic opioids overtook overdoses linked to prescription opioids in 2016, the same year the CDC released its opioid prescribing guidelines.

As PNN has reported,  the CDC last week launched a public awareness campaign to combat the abuse of prescription opioids, a marketing effort driven by surveys and focus groups that completely ignores the scourge of heroin and illicit fentanyl.

“The campaign does not include messages about heroin. Specificity is a best practice in communication, and the Rx Awareness campaign messaging focuses on the critical issue of prescription opioids. Given the broad target audience, focusing on prescription opioids avoids diluting the campaign messaging. Heroin is a related topic that also needs formative research and message testing,” the CDC explained.

The Stanford study found that discharge rates for prescription opioid poisonings declined annually by about 5 percent from 2010 to 2014, while discharge rates for heroin poisoning increased at an annual rate of 31.4 percent from 2008 to 2014. The trend has likely worsened since 2014, as heroin and illicit fentanyl are even more widely available on the black market.

"I'm cautiously optimistic that prescribing clinicians are positively reacting to the opioid crisis and therefore prescription opioids are contributing less to the overall drug epidemic," Hernandez-Boussard said. "That's the good news. The bad news is that although prescription opioid use decreased, heroin and methadone greatly increased.”

Anna Lembke, MD, an associate professor of psychiatry at Stanford and a board member of Physicians for Responsible Opioid Prescribing (PROP), says she has no doubt many people addicted to prescription opioids have switched to using heroin or illicit fentanyl.

"My patients have told me that's exactly what they did," said Lembke. "Heroin was cheaper and easier to get."

Do You Use Alcohol to Relieve Chronic Pain?

By Rochelle Odell, Columnist

I’m in a Complex Regional Pain Syndrome (CRPS/RSD) support group and one of our members recently asked if any members were turning to alcohol because their pain medication had been reduced or stopped.

It piqued my interest, so I began researching the topic. There aren’t many current studies or reports, but it’s a valid question since alcohol is much easier to obtain than pain medication.

Alcohol was among the earliest substances used to relieve physical pain and, of course, many people use it to cope with emotional pain.

According to the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, as many as 28% of people with chronic pain turn to alcohol to alleviate their suffering.

Another study from 2009 found that about 25% of patients self-medicated with alcohol for tooth pain, jaw pain or arthritis pain.

There is no documented increase in alcohol use by chronic pain patients at this time, although I would hope there are studies in process that further clarify the question and problems arising from it -- especially with opioid pain medication being reined in and so many patients left with nothing to relieve their pain.

There are many reasons why a person may self-medicate with alcohol.

“People have been using alcohol to help cope with chronic pain for many years. Many people also may use alcohol as a way to manage stress, and chronic pain often can be a significant stressor,” Jonas Bromberg, PsyD, wrote in PainAction.

“One theory about why alcohol may be used to manage chronic pain is because it affects the central nervous system in a way that may result in a mild amount of pain reduction. However, medical experts are quick to point out that alcohol has no direct pain-relieving value, even if the short-term affects provide some amount of temporary relief. In fact, using alcohol as a way to relieve pain can cause significant problems, especially in cases of excessive use, or when it is used with pain medication.”

Constant, unrelenting pain is definitely a stressor -- that's putting it mildly -- but I’ve never added alcohol to my pain medication regimen. I was always afraid of the possible deadly side effects, coupled with the fact my mother was an alcoholic who mixed her medication with it. That's a path I have chosen not to go down.

Bromberg also tells us that men may be more likely to use alcohol for pain relief than women, and people with higher income also tend to use alcohol more to treat their chronic pain.

Interestingly, the use of alcohol is usually not related to how intense a person’s pain is or how long they’ve had it. It was the regularity of pain symptoms – chronic pain -- that seemed most related to alcohol use, according to Bromberg.

Those who self-medicate with alcohol for physical or emotional pain often use it with a variety of substances, both legal and illegal.

Researchers at Boston University School of Medicine and Boston Medical Center reported last year in the Journal of General Internal Medicine that in a study of nearly 600 patients who screened positive for illicit drugs, nearly 90 percent had chronic pain. Over half of them used marijuana, cocaine or heroin, and about half reported heavy drinking.

“It was common for patients to attribute their substance use to treating symptoms of pain,” the researchers reported. “Among those with any recent heavy alcohol use, over one-third drank to treat their pain, compared to over three-quarters of those who met the criteria for current high-risk alcohol use.”

“Substance use” (not abuse) was defined as use of illegal drugs, misuse of prescription drugs, or high risk alcohol use. I had not heard of this term before, it’s usually called substance abuse.  Perhaps these researchers were onto something really important that needs further study, particularly with opioid medication under fire.

“While the association between chronic pain and drug addiction has been observed in prior studies, this study goes one step further to quantify how many of these patient are using these substances specifically to treat chronic pain," they added.

What this information shows is that if one is on pain medication, using alcohol or an illegal substance does not make one unique. It is certainly not safe, but it does occur. We are all struggling to find ways to cope with chronic pain, and if someone is denied one substance they are at high risk of turning to another.

Rochelle Odell lives in California. She’s lived for nearly 25 years with Complex Regional Pain Syndrome (CRPS/RSD).

The information in this column should not be considered as professional medical advice, diagnosis or treatment. It is for informational purposes only and represents the author’s opinions alone. It does not inherently express or reflect the views, opinions and/or positions of Pain News Network.